Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) —–8,848m
Kanchenjunga ——————-8,586m
Lhotse ———————————8,516m
Makalu ——————————–8,463m
Cho Oyu —————————-8,201m
Dhaulagiri ————————-8,167m
Manaslu —————————-8,163m
Annapurna ————————8,091m

The Himalayan range within Nepal fits into a geographic pattern as the culmination of a series of parallel ranges. The main mountain region, represented by the eternal ranges, lies about 90 kms north of the Mahabharat Lekh. The intervening space between the two parallel ranges is made up of the lower belt of the low hills (Pahar) and the higher belt of elevated ridges (Lekh) that provide the first intimation of the high snow continuous range but rather a chain of lofty ridges separated by deep gorges. Each of these mountain chains or Himals in turn sends out a maze of spurs studded with numerous peaks.

In the western and central Nepal, there is yet another mountain range that defines the boundary between Nepal and China. This border range has elevations ranging from 5,000 to 6,000m with comparatively less rugged relief but a harsh climate. Between the main Himalayan range and these border ranges lie some of the elevated Bhot Valleys.

Much of the high country above 5,000 m is under the realm of snow and ice although the permanent snow line may vary according to aspect and gradient. Winter snowfall occurs up to an elevation of 2,000 m and is much heavier in the western part. While winter is harsh and bitter, summer is the season of alpine flowers and is the time of the year when the high pastures teem with grazing animals from lower valleys. For the mountain communities, it is the time for harvesting their main crop before their winter migration to warmer climates.

The Himalayan region abounded in glaciers. Most of the biggest glaciers lie in the eastern Himalayas. As the western Himalayas receive only a small amount of rainfall, barring the formation of vast snowfields, the source of some of the large rivers of Nepal are in fact glaciers.

Nepal’s largest glacier lies in the Mahalangur and the Kumbhakarna ranges. Khumbu is the biggest glacier and Langtang the longest. Kanchenjunga, Yalung, Nupchu and Lamtang are some other glaciers belonging to the eastern Himalayas. Tukche and Hidden valley glaciers belong to the central Himalayas but these are comparatively small. Eating into the land along their course, the glaciers have been partly responsible for changing the Himalayan landscape, and for evolving various geo-patterns ranging from big cirques and rock basins to hanging valleys and morainic ridges.

World Heritage Sites (Natural):

1. Everest National Park (1148 Sq. Kms)
2. Royal Chitawan National Park (923 Sq. Kms)

World Heritage Site (Cultural):

1. Swayambhu
2. Bouddha
3. Bhaktapur
4. Changunarayan
5. Pashupatinath
6. Kathmandu Durbar Square
7. Patan Durbar Square
8. Lumbini

National Parks

1. Royal Barida National Park (968 sq. Kms)
2. Langtang National Park (1710 sq. Kms)
3. Shey-Phoksundo National Park (355 sq. Kms)
4. Rara National Park (106 sq. Kms)
5. Khapted National Park (225 sq. Kms)
6. Makalu-Barun National Park (2330 sq. Kms)

Wildlife Reserve

1. Sukla Phanta Reserve (305 sq. Kms)
2. Parsa Reserve (499 sq. Kms)
3. Koshi-Tappu Reserve (175 sq. Km)

Conservation Areas

1. Annapurna (2600 sq. Km)
2. Makalu-Barun (2330 sq. Km)

Hunting Reserve
Dhorpatan (1325 sq. Kms)

Wildlife
This country harbors one of the world’s best habitats for one horned rhino, Royal Bengal tiger, and Show-Leopard, Clouded-Leopard, Red panda, Blue-sheep and long snouted fish eating Gharial. Other wildlife includes wild elephant, buffaloes, bison, blue bell, Brown, bear, Sloth bear, Leopard, crocodiles and many varieties of cat, dog, and deer and antelope families. And 840 different species of wetland, migratory and residential birds.

Endangered Species
Tiger, Rhino, Snow Leopard, Clouded Leopard Red Panda, Brown Bear, Asamese Macaque, Gangetic Dolphin, Wolf, Wild Elephant, Giant horn-bill, Swamp deer, Wild yak, Nayan, Tibetan antelope, Black buck, Four horned antelope, Musk deer pigmy hog, Hasps hare, Pangolin, Gharial, Indian bustard, Saras Crane, Impean Pheasant, Python.

Nepal has four distinct seasons. Spring, from March to May is warm and dusty with rain showers. Summer, from June to August, is the monsoon season when the hills turn lush and green. Autumn, from September to November, is cool with clear skies, and is the most popular trekking season. In winter from December to February, it is cold at night and can be foggy in the early morning but afternoons are usually clear and pleasant, though there is occasional snow in the mountains.

Weather condition in Nepal varies from region to region. Summer and late spring temperatures range from more than 40 Degrees Celsius in the Terai to about 28 Degrees Celsius in the hilly region of the country. In winter, average maximum and minimum temperatures in the Terai range from a mild 23 Degrees Celsius to a brisk 7 Degrees Celsius while the central valley’s experience a chilly 12 Degrees Celsius maximum temperature and a minimum temperature often falling below freezing point.

Much colder temperatures prevail at higher elevations. The Katmandu Valley situated at an altitude of 1310 m, has a seasonable but equable climate with average summer and winter temperatures of 27 Degrees Celsius to 19 Degrees Celsius and 20 Degrees Celsius to 2 Degrees Celsius respectively. The annual rainfall in Katmandu generally exceeds 1300 mm. The mean annual precipitation ranges from more than 6000 mm along the southern slopes of the Annapurna range in central Nepal to less than the 250 mm in the north central portion near the Tibetan plateau. Amounts varying between 1500 and 2500 mm predominate over most of the country. On an average, about 80% of the precipitation is confined to the monsoon period (June-September).

New Year (Nava Varsha)
The Nepalese New year’s Day usually falls in the second week of April. i.e. the first day of Baisakh. The day is observed as a national holiday. The people celebrate it with great pomp and show. On this occasion, Bisket Jatra is held in the city of Bhaktapur.

Buddha Jayanti
In Nepal, Buddha Jayanti is observed by both Hindus and Buddhists. In the Kathmandu valley, the celebration centers around the ancient Buddhist Shrines of Swayambhunath, situated on a hill west of Kathmandu, the light of butter lamp blazes all through this night as it has for over 2000 years. It is a night of fasting and chanting. Morning finds the stupa gaily decorated with fluttering prayer flags. Thangkas and religious paintings are unrolled and displayed in front of the Tibetan Buddhist monasteries around the stupa. Monks performs long rituals and walk in procession with horns, cymbals and colorful head-dresses. On the other side of town, at the immense white stupa of Boudhanath, crowds of Tibetans, Tamangs and Sherpas gather for merrymaking. An image of the Buddha is mounted on an elephant leading a procession which circles the stupa and winds through the streets to another stupa. Large symbolic lotus petals are painted on the stupa with yellow dye made from pounds of expensive saffron. Prayer flags fill the air, and when night falls, the stupa and balconies of monasteries and homes sparkle with the light of thousands of candle and butter lamps. It’s a time of joy and devotion and a time of thanks to the prince who left his palace to bring to the world the teachings of great compassion.

Dashain
Dashain is also known as Durga Puja, for it is the worship of Mother Goddess Durga. It is Nepal’s longest and most lavishly celebrated Hindu festival. Like Christmas, it is the holiday when families unite to exchange blessings and gifts, to spread goodwill and to forget feuds and quarrels. Everyone wears new clothes, feasts are spread, and the businesses and government functions come to a pleasant halt as one and all make festive visits to their relatives’ homes.

Throughout Nepal during the two weeks preceding the full moon of September or October, Hindu as well as Buddhist households celebrates Dashain. In villages throughout the country, in the homes, streets and temple courtyards of Kathmandu valley, the great Goddess Durga is propitiated with elaborate dances and ritual animal sacrifices. For it was Durga, in a momentous victory, who saved the world form evil forces. The gods and goddesses of Hinduism take may alternative forms. Durga, Divine protectress, is represented either as a simple holy water pot or in her full powerful form with 18 hands holding 18 weapons. Durga also manifested as ferocious Kali with a protruding tongue and necklace of Skulls; or as Taleju-the fearsome protector Goddess of Nepal; or as Kumari, the gentle virgin Living Goddess. Durga is compassionate when treated to generous offerings of blood and spirits, but she is vengeful is scorned with neglet; thus the fervor with which Hindus celebrate Durga puja.

For each of the first nine nights, the narrow lanes surrounding Patan’s Durbar square pulsate with masked dancers aglitter in jeweled costumes, each personifying one of the eight mother Earth goddesses, the Asta Matrika. It is celebrated upto 10 days.

Deepawali (The festival of Lights)
Deepawali, which literally means “the row of lamps” is celebrated as the festival of lights. This festival is also known as ‘Tihar’ which lasts for five consecutive days and is observed in honour of Laxmi, the Goddess of wealth and good luck. It is the friendliest of festivals observed throughout Nepal and also India. Laxmi, the Goddess of prosperity and good fortune is invited into every home. All people enjoy five days of feasting and family gatherings. It also heralds the advent of autumn in Nepal.

Laxmi puja is observed on the auspicious occasion of Deepawali. This is the third day of Tihar when the secret cow is worshipped with great honor. Hindus worship and regard cow as their holy mother. So everybody worship the holy cow in the morning with garlands of flowers and apply red tika on her foreheads.

A few days before Tihar, preparations are seen in full swing for cleaning and whitewashing to add new look to houses and buildings. During this festival houses, shops, offices, factories and mills are brightly decorated with lights and traditional lamps. It is a time of lights and tinsel decorations. This type of illumination is done for three consecutive days, beginning from the first day of Tihar. But special light arrangements are done on the day of Laxmi puja. Flickering oil-traditional lamps lighten al courtyards, doorways, roof-tops, verandahs and windows. People stroll around in new clothes and buy sweets and gifts. In this way, this festival gives glimpse of a traditional Christmas.

Teej (The festival of women (August to September)
Teej festival is celebrated with great enthusiasm and devotion by women in Nepal. Teej is an annual festival. Married women observe Teej to honor lord Shiva and for long and healthy life of their husband. According to Hindu mythology Goddess Parvati reunited with Lord Shiva on this day. According to the holy books, the Goddess Parvati fasted and prayed fervently for the great lord Shiva to become her spouse.

Touched by her devotion, he took her for his wife. This is why women also fast on this day for their husbands or for their husbands to be. Unmarried girls also observe fast on this day for a good husband. Red color is an eminent part of this festival as it is considered auspicious for women observing Teej Fast and so most of them dress up in red or bridal clothes.

Teej celebrations last for three pious days. Women are busy shopping for this festival buying new clothes, bangles, and preparing dishes they have the day before the fasting day. Teej is the only fasting day that women are not allowed to have anything the whole day including water.

Maha Shiva Ratri (February-March)
The night of Lord Shiva, where tens of thousands of devotees and pilgrims from all over Nepal, India and other parts of the world converge at Pashupatinath temple.

During Shivaratri the temple of Pashupati Nath, dedicated to Lord Shiva, becomes all spruced up in anticipation of the arrival of Sadhus, Yogis and other holy men as well as hundreds of thousands of devout Hindu pilgrims. The fact that all devout Hindus believe a visit to the holy Pashupati Nath temple will absolve all past sins and the preference to make this pilgrimage during the time of Shivaratri, the most auspicious of Shivaratri festivals, is one of the main reasons for the annual congregation of this vast multitude of humanity.

The days before and after Shivaratri sees the collection of vast numbers of people from all walks of life as well as providing a Kaleidoscope of many different ethnic and tribal races of Nepal and India. People fill roads around Pashupati Nath temple-holy men, some half clad, some covered in ash but entirely nude; pilgrims in their distinct and colorful tribal costumes; vendors selling practically everything from vermillion powder, Rudraksha beads, Monkey nuts to Coca cola and snacks. The curious foreign tourist also forms part of this vast collection.

People gather on the hillside across the river from the Pashupati Nath temple as well as around the vicinity of the temple complex, in groups around campfires and in making shift shelters, singing Bhajans, reciting mantras, discussing various religious topics while maintaining a fast and a vigil in anticipation of the religious ceremonies. Some with photographable hairstyles dot the area, serene and trance-like, emulating Lord Shiva himself, who it is believed to smoke ‘Marijuana’.

Holi (The festival of colors)
Holi or Faagu, the festival of color, falling in the month of March, Faagu Purnima (Full-moon day), according to Nepali calendar, is a colorfully distinct and unique festival in Hindu culture, celebrated amid greater jubilance and festivity by the Hindu youth-boys and girls in particular.

On this day, all young and old, usually garbed in white costume, wearing red-powder on their foreheads, and varieties of liquid colors thrown on their white Pyzama or Pant Shirts, wander in groups from place to place reaching their friends, relatives, kith and kin, hugging each other, receiving and offering the red-powders on foreheads. The mood and the atmosphere is one of the state of happiness, victory.

In similar fashion, the young girls and women of the household, too, play Holi among themselves, some with their male relatives, friends and kith and kin.

To add intensity to the Holi mood or to forget their sufferings, perhaps the youth consume Opium paste called Shiva buti or ghotta which adds momentum to the festivity. The revelers sing and dance in a complete state of happiness wearing strange look, a bizarre appearance, resulting form applying of several colors on their faces.

The significance of Holi festival, like other Hindu festivals in Hindu mythology, is of greater theological importance. The tradition in the Terai of Nepal and India has it that a day before Holi festival is ceremonially observed, the local youth collects, to some extent, steal wood and timber in the evening from vicinity and, pie them up in some isolated field where they, after observing some rituals, set the wood on fire.

Krishna Astami (July-August)
It marks the birthday of Lord Krishna. On this day, impressive ceremonies are conducted at the Krishna Temple in Patan and at Changu Narayan.

Gai Jatra – Cow festival (July to August)
It is a carnival that lasts eight days. Dancing, singing, comedy and anything that causes mirth and laughter are its highlights.

Red Machchhendranath Rath Jatra(May-June)
This festival is the biggest socio-cultural event of Patan. The wheeled chariot of a deity known as Bungdyo or Red Machchhendranath is made at Pulchowk and dragged through the city of Patan in several stages till it reaches the appointed destination. The grand finale of the festival is called the ‘Bhoto Dekhaune’ or the “Showing of a vest”. A similar kind of chariot festival to Machchhendranath(white) is also held in Kathmandu city in the month of March-April.

Lhosar
This festival is most impressively observed in the month of February by the Sherpas. They organize folk songs and dances on this occasion. These dances can be seen in Khumbu, Helambu, and other northern regions of Nepal and also at Boudhanath in Kathmandu.

Ghodejatra(March-April)
Known as the festival of horses, it is one of the exciting festivals of Kathmandu. Horse race and other sports take place at Tundikhel on this day. In other parts of the city, various deities are carried shoulder-high on Palanquin to the accompaniment of traditional music.

Inrajatra (August-September)
The festival of Indra, the God of rain, is observed with great enthusiasm in Kathmandu valley. The festival lasts for eight days. The Chariot of Kumari, the Living Goddess, is taken out in Procession through the main streets of Kathmandu. The festival is specially noted for the echoes of drums and dancing feet of the masked dancers almost every evening.

Religions are an integral and deep-rooted part of Nepalese life. Temples, images, carved paintings are to be seen everywhere.  Majority of the people are Hindu in Nepal, nevertheless, Buddhism has also important place in this country.  Hinduism and Buddhism are closely connected through out Nepal’s history.

The 2001 census identified 80.6% of the population as Hindu and Buddhism was practiced by about 11% of the population (although many people labelled Hindu or Buddhist often practice a syncretic blend of Hinduism, Buddhism and/or animist traditions). About 4.2% of the population is Muslim and 3.6% of the population follows the indigenous Kirant religion. Christianity is practiced officially by less than 0.5% of the population.

Hindu and Buddhist traditions in Nepal go back to more than two millennia. In Lumbini, Buddha was born, and Pashupatinath temple, Kathamandu, is an old and famous Shiva temple of Hindus. Nepal has several other temples and Buddhist monasteries as well as places of worship of other religious groups. Traditionally, Nepalese philosophical thoughts are ingrained with the Hindu and Buddhist philosophical ethos and traditions, which include elements of Kashmir Shaivism, Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism, works of Karmacharyas of Bhaktapur, and a variety of tantric traditions. Tantric traditions are deep rooted in Nepal, including the practice of animal sacrifices. Five types of animals, always male, are considered acceptable for sacrifice: water buffalo, goats, sheep, chickens, and ducks.

With a multiplicity of groups, Nepal has several cults, and gods and goddesses, which co-exist with the major religions. In its long cultural history, Nepal has always remained a land of religious harmony.

Hinduism
Hinduism has a basic trinity of three gods; Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver and Shiva the Destroyer. Most Hindus, while revering Brahma, do not usually include his worship in religious ceremonies. Vishnu and Shiva, however, are very important to all the Nepalese Hindus.

Vishnu, whose primary duty is to assure the preservation of the world and all living forms, is believed to have visited the earth ten times as “avatars” or incarnations. He is also believed to have come to the earth as a Varaha, as Prince Rama, as the god Krishna and as Lord Gautam Buddha.

Shiva, the Destroyer, is believed to have three forms-Natraj the god of artistic skill, an anthropomorphic form and the Lingam form, the latter being the most famous Lingam is situated in the north-west of Katmandu. In front of any Shiva temple, one usually sees a statue of Nandi, the divine bull that serves as Shiva’s vehicle. In anthropomorphic form, Shiva is depicted with his consort Parbati and usually holds a trident and a small drum. Another popular form of Shiva is terrifying Bhairav, who himself has a number of different forms.

Another widely venerated god is Ganesh, one of the sons of Shiva. Ganesh is revered in Nepal as the god of wisdom and the deity responsible for deciding between success and failure.

In practice, the Nepalese Hindus may choose one particular god as a favorite deity to be worshipped daily, or more likely will give due deference to all the above-mentioned gods and goddesses, along with many other incarnations and deities. Nepal’s many Hindu festivals are dedicated to dozens of different deities and celebrated by all Hindus, as well as Buddhists.

Two of Vishnu’s other incarnations- Rama and Krishna-are especially important to the Hindus. Rama and Krishna are the heroes of the classic Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharat respectively.

Buddhism
Beliefs and practices of Buddhism in Nepal date back to the time of its founder, Prince Siddhartha Gautam who was born in Lumbini in the southern Terai region of the country in about 543 B.C. Up to the age of twenty-nine, the young prince led a very sheltered life in the royal palace of his father, completely unaware of the problems and suffering of everyday life outside of the palace walls.

One day, he convinced his charioteer to take him outside the palace and was shocked at the sight of an old man, a cripple and a corpse. The realization that there was much misery and unhappiness in the world persuaded the prince to abandon his luxurious life in the royal palace in order to search for enlightenment and the real meaning of life.

For many years, Gautam wandered from place to place looking for a solution to the problems he saw all around him. Finally, while meditating under a Pine tree, he became spiritually enlightened. Henceforth known as Lord Buddha or the “the enlightened one”. He began to preach the “Four Noble Truths” to all who would listen. According to this doctrine, people suffer because of their attachment to things and the root of all the problems is desire. These desires and consequently, all problems and sufferings, can be totally eliminated by following the “eightfold path”-right views, right intent, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort right mindfulness an right meditation.

Buddha journeyed from place to place, teaching and converting hundreds of followers and died at the age of eighty. However, his many disciples continued spreading his teachings. At the same time Buddhism splitted into two main schools of thought: Hinayana and Mahayana. The Followers of Hinayana do not worship idols of Buddha as the enlightened prince taught against idolatory. Very few other Nepalese Buddhists have adopted the Hinayana school of thought, choosing rather to follow Mahayana teachings. One of the central beliefs of Mahayanists is that one can achieve nirvana by following the example of Bodhisattvas, Bodhi meaning enlightenment and Sattva meaning essence.

Tantrism
Both Hinduism and Buddhism in Nepal have been strongly influenced by the beliefs and practices of Tantrism. “Tantra” is a Sanskrit word referring to the basic warp of threads in weaving. Difficult to define due to its varying types and forms, Trantrism is a religion of moral percepts, meditation, yoga, mantras and a philosophy that believes in interwovenness of all things.

Tantrism has greatly influenced Nepalese Buddhism by creating the path of Vajrayana, the Path of the Thunderbolt. The main object used in Vajrayana Buddhist rituals is a small thunderbolt-like sceptre that is said to represent the infinite in three dimensions. A large thunderbolt or Vajra as it is commonly referred to, can be seen at the entrance of Swayambhu temple at Katmandu on the top of a long flight steps.

There are basically two types of Tantric gods and goddesses: Dharmapalas and Yidams. The former is often depicted with flaming red hair, several arms, legs or heads and three eyes. Yidams are tutelary deities often found depicted in thangkas; like their Dharmapala counterparts, they are ferocious deities with many hands and fearsome weapons.

The high Himalayan settlements of Tibetan speaking people are found perched precariously on mountain ledges and slopes. Life here is delicate balance of hard work and social merrymaking, tempered by a culture deeply steeped in ancient religious traditions. The best known of the high mountain peoples are the Sherpas who inhabit the central and eastern regions of Nepal. The Sherpas have easy access to Bhot (Tibet) for trade and social intercourse and therefore Tibetan influence on their culture and civilization remains distinct. The midlands are inhabited by various Tibeto-Burman and Indo-Aryan speaking hill and valley people, for example the Brahmins, Chettris, and Newars. While the Brahmins and Chettris are widely distributed throughout the country, the Newars are mainly concentrated in the Katmandu Valley and other towns.

The Rais, Limbus, Tamangs, Magars, Sunwars, Jirels, Gurungs, Thakalis, and Chepangs are other Tibeto-Burman speaking Mongoloid peole found living in the middle hills. They each have their own distinct social and cultural patterns. The the lowland Terai are inhabited by people such as the Brahmins, Rajputs, Tharus, Danwars, Majhis, Darais, Rajbansis, Statars, dhimals and Dhangars. Though Nepal is a veritable mosaic of dozens of ethnic groups, they are bound together and by the ideas of peaceful coexistence and religious tolerance to form one unified nation.

But the recorded history of Nepal does not start until around 800 BC, with the beginning of the Kirat Period. After that, the Lichhavi and Thakuri Period started and followed by the Malla Period, the Shah Period and now Nepal is declared as the Federal Republic of Nepal (since 2008).

Kirat Period (800 BC – 300 AD)
Very little is known about this period in the history of Nepal. The Kirats ruled for about 1000 years and were ruled by a total of 28 kings during that time. The first and best remembered king was Yalambar. Legend credits him with meeting Indra, the lord of heaven, who ventured into the Valley in human guise. He had the dubious honor of being slain in the epic battle of the Mahabharata, in which gods and mortals fought alongside each other.

Another remarkable event during this period is the coming of Gautam Buddha in the time of the seventh king. The Buddha supposedly spent time in Patan, where he elevated the blacksmith caste to goldsmiths and bestowed upon them the name of his own clan, Sakya.

The great emperor of India, Ashoka, was also a visitor to Kathmandu in this period. As a follower of Buddhism, Ashoka visited Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha, and erected stupas in Kathmandu. His daughter married a local prince and further spread the religion. As the Kirat dynasty came to an end in the valley, parts still remained in the eastern mountains where they are considered to be the forefathers of todays Rai and Limbu castes.

Lichhavi and Thakuri Period (300 – 1200 AD)
The Lichhavi Period is the first documented period in the history of Nepal. The Lichhavi, having lost their political fortune in India, came to Nepal and attacked and defeated the last Kirati king, Gasti. The Lichhavis were probably the Rajputs of India, from todays Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. It is a classical period of Nepal history and is very well documented by epigraphic records. Stone water spouts and the icons of gods and goddesses are abundant.

The Lichhavis gave Nepal its first great historical figure, Manadeve, in the 5th century. He was said to be a talented and brave king, responsible for conquests in the east and west. He struck copper coins and started the numismatic history of Nepal.

In 602 AD, the first Thakuri dynasty began with the ascent of Amsuverma. Though he was not a Lichhavi, he married a daughter of the Lichhavi king, Shivadeva. He impressed his father-in-law and became de facto ruler. He was an able, true servant of the people. He was a far-sighted king in the aspect of making family connections making him a great diplomat. Amsuverma married his sister to an Indian prince and his daughter, Bhrikuti, to Tibet’s powerful King Tsrong-tsong Gompo. Bhrikuti is believed to have taken as part of her dowry the begging bowl of Buddha and other artifacts of Buddhism. Together with Gompo’s second wife, a Chinese princess, they converted the king and Tibet to Buddhism.

Malla Period (1200 – 1769 AD)
Though the Malla were active in other areas, they did not come to the valley until 1200 AD when King Ari-deva assumed the title and founded a new, highly accomplished dynasty. The Malla Period is a glorious era in the history of Nepal. Mallas developed trade and commerce, industry, religion and culture. They reached a high level of perfection in the fields of art and architecture.

The early Malla monarchs held absolute power by divine right: they were considered to be incarnations of Vishnu, as are the last Shah rulers. Although the Mallas were Hindu Shaivites following strict Brahmin rituals, they were tolerant of Buddhism, which was widespread at the court and among the people – especially in its Tantric form, the cult of Vajrayana.

A feudal administrative structure was imposed, dominated by an aristocratic elite whose powers at times overshadowed those of the sovereign. Below them, Brahmins and Chhetris monopolized all offices of profit around the palace. Next on the social ladder were the traders and farmers, divided into 64 strictly enforced occupational castes.

The most popular kings of this period and their accomplishments are briefly described below:

Jayasthiti Malla (1354-1395)
Jayasthiti Malla was the most famous of all the Malla Kings. As a great reformer, he codified the whole structure of the Nepalese society in a strictly orthodox Hindu frame. Jayasthiti was a builder of temples and a patron of art and literature. He was also an economic reformer and introduced a system of measuring land and houses.

Pratap Malla
Pratap Malla was the King of Kantipur, today’s Kathmandu. He was an authority in religion, music, and the art of warfare. And though he was a Hindu, he tolerated other religions. He even reconstructed the Buddhist shrine of Swayambunath. He constructed Krishna Mandir, the Shrine of Taleju, Rani Pokhari, and Guheswari temple.

Jaya Prakash Malla
Jaya Prakash was the last King of Kantipur. Although brave and confident, he was unlucky. He tried to save the Valley from a Gorkha attack, calling for unity among the three states around Kathmandu. But he was not heeded to. Even calling on the army from the East India Company did not help. Fighting within his family was partly to blame.

Ranjit Malla
Ranjit Malla was the last King of Bhaktapur. As a lover of rare and precious things, he added many courtyards to his palace. And to improve economic conditions in his Kingdom, he imported silver exporting it as coins.

Shah Period (1769 to 2008)
During the middle of the 18th Century, there were about 500 small states in India and about 50 states in Nepal. The situation was completely chaotic in the sense that most of them were fighting each other to expand their territory. And then along comes Prithvi Narayan Shah from the state of Gorkha (home of the now famous Gurkha soldier), about 100 km west of Kathmandu. He believed that unless Nepal was unified, it was in danger of going into the hands of British India. He started the process by unifying the small states. In 1768, after ten years of preparation, siege, and attack, Kathmandu fell to Gorkha on the day of the festival of Indra and the Virgin Goddess. Prithvi Narayan died in 1775 and was succeeded by his son Bahadur Shah. The new Shah rulers, transferring their seat of power to Kathmandu after its conquest, undertook to expand and consolidate their territory. But in 1790, their troops met Chinese resistance while marching to Tibet, then a vassal of China. The 70,000 Chinese troops pushed the Gorkhas back into Nepal and defeat. The treaty stipulated that Nepal send the Chinese emperor a tribute every five years. This was done all the way up to 1912.

Down South, Nepal was expanding its territory into India. By 1810, the kingdom extended from Kashmir to Sikkim and was double its present size. Confrontations led to a two-year war with the British between 1814-1816. Nepal was defeated and the Sugauli Treaty was signed in 1816, under which Nepal lost one-third of its territory. Another stipulation was that a British citizen reside in Kathmandu, bringing great resentment from the Nepalese. The borders were subsequently closed to foreigners, not to be reopened until 1951 The British resident and his successors were the only aliens within Nepal’s frontiers for well over a century.

The prime minister, Bhimsen Thapa, suffered humiliation from this defeat and was arrested and locked up and committed suicide in 1839. The period between 1836-1846 was marked with confusion and intrigues. Pandays, Basnyats, and Kunwars were all fighting each other for power. In 1846, Jung Bahadur Rana had himself designated prime minister and later “Maharajah” with powers superior to those of the king. He established an oligarchy which would last 104 years. The country was kept in isolation and the people were deprived of political and social rights. Enemies were assassinated or persecuted and the power structure and state moneys were directed solely to the self interest of the Ranas. The King was there but he was kept under complete control of the Ranas. In 1850, Jung Bahadur visited England and France bringing back ideas with him. One prime minister reformed the forced labor system, another started a college and started a newspaper but altogether much more harm than good was done.

After World War II, many changes were taking place. Colonies were gaining independence, particularly India from Great Britain. The Communists of China invaded Tibet, forcing many refugees to flee to Nepal and India.

A “liberal” Rana prime minister proposed a new constitution offering a measure of people’s participation through an administrative system known as Panchayat. Village elders would solve problems locally with leaders elected to a national Panchayat. But this new idea was soon undone by a successor.

With the support of the Indian Congress Party, opponents of the Rana rule – including some prominent Ranas – joined the Nepali Congress Party under the leadership of B.P. Koirala. The rightful sovereign of Nepal, King Tribhuvan, still powerless in his palace, was heralded as the embodiment of the democratic aspirations of the people.

In November 1950, the King fled to India under the pretense of going hunting. The “freedom fighters” of Nepal fought the Ranas, setting up bases in the Terai. As their was no decisive victor, India presided over a compromise. The King returned from India and soon thereafter, the Ranas went to live in India.

The period between 1951-1959 passed with uncertainty as the King did not comply with his promise of holding elections for the constituent assembly. Finally, only under pressure from the parties, King Mahendra (son of King Tribhuvan) declared elections for the parliament in 1959.

The Nepali Congress surprisingly won a majority of the seats in the new parliament. This led the King to fear he would be reduced to a ceremonial role and thus, on December 15, 1960 declared foreign politics were not for him and had the Nepali Congress put under arrest. He would have direct rule. Two years later, he started the Panchayat system. The local five-man Panchayat would send representatives to the district which would send others to the national Panchayat. But this body had few real powers.

There were times of agitations against the regime of the King but they were not successful. King Mahendra died in 1972 and was succeeded by his son, Birendra. In 1980, there was large scale discontent from the people with much violence. The King called for a referendum, with the choices between the Panchayat System and the multi-party Democracy. It was largely believed that vote-rigging occurred in favor of the Panchayat victory. The situation became even more suppressive afterwards.

In 1989, a trade impasse erupted with India. India blockaded 17 of the 19 entry points. This led to much discontent from which the opposition parties capitalized. The Nepali Congress, with support of the Communists, launched a mass movement against the Panchayat system. It was successful in mobilizing people from all walks of life. Two aspects were unprecedented in this movement. One was the alliance of the Nepali Congress with the Communists. The second was the international support for the movement.

After the change, the interior government headed by the Nepali Congress leader Krishna Prasad Bhattarai was formed. The tasks of the government included framing the constitution and holding a general election for Parliament.

Since 2008, Neapal is declared as the Federal Republic of Nepal and the Shah dynasty has been abolished totally.